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In development studies, the concept of a value chain has been used to analyse international trade in global value chains which comprises “the full range of activities that are required to bring a product from its conception, through its design, its sourced raw materials and intermediate inputs, its marketing, its distribution and its support to the final consumer”. 〔https://globalvaluechains.org/concept-tools〕 Specifically, when activities must be coordinated across geographies, the term global value chain (GVC) is used in the development literature. Simply put, the global value chain includes all of the people involved in the production of a good or service. == In development == The first references to the GVC concept date from the mid-1990s and were enthusiastic about the upgrading prospects for developing countries that joined them. In his early work based on research on East Asian garment firms, the pioneer in value chain analysis, Gary Gereffi, describes a process of almost ‘natural’ learning and upgrading for the firms that joined GVCs.〔Gereffi, G., (1994). The Organisation of Buyer-Driven Global Commodity Chains: How US Retailers Shape Overseas Production Networks. In G. Gereffi, and M. Korzeniewicz (Eds), Commodity Chains and Global Capitalism. Westport, CT: Praeger.〕 This echoed the ‘export-led’ discourse of the World Bank in the ‘East Asian Miracle’ report based on the East Asian ‘Tigers’ success. This encouraged the World Bank and other leading institutions to encourage developing firms to develop their indigenous capabilities through a process of upgrading technical capabilities to meet global standards with leading multinational enterprises (MNE) playing a key role in helping local firms through transfer of new technology, skills and know how. (para on how the concept was used in the concept of development the 1990s'' ). GVC analysis views “upgrading” as a continuum starting with “process upgrading” (e.g. a producer adopts better technology to improve efficiency), then moves on to “product upgrading” where the quality or functionality of the product is upgraded by using higher quality material or a better quality management system (QMS), and then on to “functional upgrading” in which the firm begins to design its own product and develops marketing and branding capabilities and begins to supply to end markets/customers directly - often by targeting geographies or customers which are not served by its existing Multinational clients). Subsequently, the process of upgrading might also cover inter-sectoral upgrading.〔Humphrey, J., and H. Schmitz. 2004. "Chain Governance and Upgrading: Taking Stock". in ''Local Enterprises in the Global Economy'', edited by H. Schmitz, 349–82. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.〕 This upgrading process in GVCs has been challenged by other researches – some of which argue that insertion in global value chains does not always lead to upgrading. Some authors 〔Humphrey, J. and Schmitz, H. (2000). Governance and Upgrading: Linking Industrial Cluster and Global Value Chain. IDS Working Paper 120, Institute of Development Studies, University of Sussex, Brighton.〕 argue that the expected upgrading process might not hold for all types of upgrading. Specifically they argue upgrading into design, marketing and branding might be hindered by exporting under certain conditions because MNEs have no interest in transferring these core skills to their suppliers thus preventing them from accessing global markets (except as a supplier) for first world customer. 抄文引用元・出典: フリー百科事典『 ウィキペディア（Wikipedia）』 ■ウィキペディアで「Global value chain」の詳細全文を読む スポンサード リンク
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